In 1023 Sriwijaya, the biggest enemy of Isyana clan, was defeated by Rajendra Coladewa, king of Colamandala from India. Airlangga had more space to conquered Java. He then conquered King Hasin. In 1030 he conquered Wisnuprabhawa, king of Wuratan, Wijayawarma king of Wengker, and Panuda king of Lewa. In 1031, Panuda’s son tried to revenge yet he was defeated by Airlangga and Lewa capital was destroyed.

In 1032, a queen from Tulungagung (currently) could defeat Airlangga, Watan Mas palace was destroyed. Airlangga escaped to patakan accompanied by Mapanji Tumanggala. Airlangga built a new capital city in Kahuripan. The queen can be defeated. In 102, Airlangga and Mpu Narotama defeated King Wurawari, and revenge for Isyana clan. In 1035 Airlangga silence Wijayawarma rebellion , KIng of Wengker. Wijayawarma escaped from city of Tapa and then killed by his own people.

After the condition was secure, Airlangga developed his land and made his people in prosper. The development was recorded in inscriptions: Building Sri WIjaya Dorm in 1036, Building Waringin Sapta Dam  in 1037 to avoid flood, building Hujung Galuh Harbor at Brantas River in Surabaya currently, building roads connecting littoral to city, officially opened Gunung Pucangan hermitage in 1041 and moved the capital from Kahuripan to Daha.

Airlangga had deep interest in literature and arts. In 105 Mpu Kanwa wrote Arjunawiwaha adapted from Mahabarata epic, about the struggle of Arjuna against Niwatakawaca, as a metaphone Airlangga defeating Wurawari.

In 1042 Airlangga became priest and according to Serat Calon ARang, his later name was Rsi Airlangga Jatiningrat, while according to Babad Tanah Jawi, his name was Rsi Gentayu. And according to the reliable Gandhakuti (1042), airlangga priest name was Rsi Aji paduka Sang Pinaka Catraning Bhuwana.  According to local tale, Airlangga royal princess refused to be queen and lived as a hermit as Dewi Kili Suci. The real anme of her according to Cane INscription 1021 to Turun Hyang (1035) was Sanggramawijaya Tunggadewi.

According to Serat Calon Arang, Airlangga was confused choosing one of his sons as his predecessor as both of his sons fought for the throne. As he remembered he was the son of Bali King, so he sent one of his son to Bali. His master, Mpu Bharada departed to Bali to comply Airlangga’s purpose, but it did not work out. Udayana had been replaced by his son Marakata as Bali king, and Marakata had been replaced by his brother Anak Wungsu. Airlangga then split his kingdom into two. Mpu Bharada was assigned to determine the border between west and east. This was recorded in Serat Calon Arang, Negarakertagama, and Turun Hyang inscription II. The west kingdom was called as Kadiri and the capital was in Daha and ruled by Sri Samarawijaya. The east kingdom was Janggala, the capital was the old town Kahuripan and ruled by Mapanji Garasakan.

Kahuripan is a name used by a kingdom in East Java built by Airlangga in 1009. This kingdom was built to proceed Medang Kingdom which fell down in 1006.

Airlangga is the founder of Kahuripan Kingdom, ruled in 1009-1042 with title Abhiseka Sri Maharaja Rakai Halu Sri Dharmawangsa Airlangga Anantawikramottunggadewa.

Airlangga means jumping water and he was born in 990. Her mother was Mahendradatta, a princess of Isyana Clan from Medang Kingdom. His father was Udayana, king of Bedahulu from Warmadewa klan. Airlangga has 2 sisters Marakata (became Bali king after their father died) and Anak Wungsu (became the next king after Marakata died).

He was mentioned as someone who ordered Mpu Kanwa to write Kakawin Arjunawiwaha. He was raised in Watugaluh kingdom (Medang Kingdom) ruled by Dharmawangsa. In that period Medang became a strong kingdom, and even conquered Bali and established colony in Western of Kalimantan, and attacked Sriwijaya.

In 1066. when Airlangga was 16 years.Sriwijaya revenge Medang.Wurawari (Sriwijaya Allies) burnt Watugaluh palace, Dharmawangsa and royal families died in in the assault. But Airlangga could escape to forest.

According to Pucangan inscription, in 1006 Airlangga married to daughter of his uncle, Dharmawangsa Teguh (brother of Mahendradatta) in Watan, capital of Medang. Suddenly Watan was attacked by King Wurawari from Lwaram, the ally of Sriwijaya.  In that assault Dhawmawangsa Teguh died, while Airlangga could escape to mountain forest  (wanagiri) accompanied by his man, Mpu Narotama. He was 16 and he started his life as an ascetic. One of site used by Airlangga in his escape is Sendang made, Kudu, Jombang, East Java.

The kingdom built by Airlangga is usually known as Kahuripan, while in fact, Kahuripan was just one of capital’s kingdom led by Airlangga. After 3 years in forest, He was visited by his people asking him to return to Medang Kingdom. As Watan was destroyed, Airlangga built a new capital, Watan Mas nearby Gunung Penanggungan. This city is written in Cane Inscription (1021)

According to Terep Inscription (1032), Watan Mas seized by enemy, that Airlangga ran to patakan village. According to Kamalagyan inscription (1037), the capital was moved to kahuripan (currently Sidoarjo). According to Pamwatan (1042), the capital then moved to Daha (currently Kediri). This info is accordance with Serat Calon Arang that mentioned Airlangga as the king of Daha. Negarakertagama even mention Airlangga is the king of Panjalu, and Daha as the capital.

When Airlangga became king in 1009, his kingdom constituted of Sidoarjo and pasuruan, as after the death of Dharmawangsa Teguh, there are many smaller kingdoms extricated. Airlangga then create power to re-take over Isyana clan in Java.

to be continued

In plants and animal geography, Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) no closely related. He pioneered modern research about animal geography, apart from Darwin theory. He postulated that there is an imaginary line separating Australis and Asiatic  animals. Wallace held a research about the spread of Indonesia animals and the result was that there are difference between animals on the Eastern and Western part of Indonesia.

Wallace line is a hypothetical line separating Asia and Australasia  geographic animals. The western part is related to Asia species, while on the east related to Australia species. This line passes Malay archipelago, between Borneo and Sulawesi, and between Bali and Lombok and Timor. Having typical animals (especially Sulawesi Island), different than oriental and Australia animals such as : Anoa, mako bird, and black monkey. The different was recorded by Antonio Pigafetta about the biological difference between the Phillipines and Maluku Islands, as recorded by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. This line then was revised and moved eastward (Sulawesi land) by Webber. The flora and fauna of Asia then determined differently, according to flora and fauna types. This line is then called as ‘Wallace-Webber’

Wallace line regions:
-Sunda Shelf (on the west) 
Sunda Shelf is slab ranges from Oriental region (Asia Continent) and located on the western part of Wallace line. Wallace line is an imaginary line separating flora and fauna on Sunda Self with the further east of Indonesia. This line ranges from north to south, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and between Bali and Lombok. This line complies the biologist name, Alfred Russel Wallace, who in 1858, showed the spread of flora and fauna in SUmatera, Kalimantan, Java and Bali resemples to that of Asia continent.

-Sahul Shelf (On the east)
Sahul Shelf is slab ranges from Australesia (Australia Continent) located on the east of Webber line. Weber line is an imaginary line separating flora and fauna in Sahul Shelf and the further west part of Indonesia. This line is longitudinal north to south between Maluku Islands and Papua and between Nusa Tenggara Timur and Australia. This line compkies the biologist name Max Weber, who in 1902, showed that flora and fauna spread in this region resembles to that of Australia’s.

-Wallacea Region /Deep Sea (In the middle)
This slab on fringe of East Asia ranges in the middle of Wallace and Webber Line. This region constitutes of Sulawesi, Sunda Kecil (Nusa Tenggara) and Maluku Islands. Flora and fauna in this region are endemic species and found no where else in this world. Yet, this region has oriental and Australesia elements. Wallace stated that ocean was covered by ice in The Ice Age that flora and fauna in Asia and Australia could come across and gathered in Indonesia. And if Asia animals are more in amount in the western, and Australian also in the eastern, is because if Wallacea region is actually was a       very deep sea through that fauna could not cross and fauna stopped to spread.

WEBBER LINE
Webber line is an imaginary line separating flora and fauna in Sahul Shelf and the further west of Indonesia. This line longitudinally located southward between Maluku Islands and Papua Island and between East Nusa Tenggara and Australia. This line was pioneered by Max Carl Wilhelm Webber who was a German-Dutch zoologist and bio-geographer.

Webber is specially interested in the depth of Lombok Srait, thats eparate Bali and Lombok Island. Previously Webber theorized that the strait is the mark separating  Asia and Australia fauna. But Webber’s finding indicating that the dept of Lombok Strait depth was only 312 m, which means that it is not so deep. After in depth analysis, especially on the consition of fauna in the eastern of Indonesia especially in Celebes and Maluku, Webber theorized that the strong  line separating Asia and Australia was non existent, yet forther east of Indonesia, fauna with Asia typical were less and on the opposite fauna with Australia typical is more in amount.

This research result done by Webber is used by some researchers to move the Walalce line eastward and later this line is called as Webber Line, though Webber did not agree about this imaginary separation as Wallace Imaginary line. Webber imaginary line was popularized by paul Pelseneer in 1904.

In modern view, generally, Wallace and Webber line is a transition zone called as Wallacea. Scientists picture that Wallace line between Borneo and Celebes is the end of Asia Slab, while Webber line is between Celebes and Maluku Islands reflecting balance between fauna Asia and Australia.

As Webber returned from exploring East Indies, he published his research “Zoologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in Niederländisch Ost-Indien”. Generally, the main point of his research was about marine biology focused in migration route of ocean invertebrate  and palagis fishes (who live on middle and upper sea). He found new kind of  fishes and  other ocean animals such as Brachiopoda found in several islands on the eastern of Indonesia such as in Banda, Ambon, Seram, Kei, Sulawesi, Sulu and Selayar. While according Tomascik (1997), expedition Siboga in Indonesia discovered 70 species’ and 27 coral ahermatypic, including 3000 species of sponge. The first Batimetri map ( map of sea bottom configuation) was also created in this expedition.

THE INFLUENCE OF WALLACE LINE AND WEBBER LINE TOWARDS INDONESIA’S FLORA AND FAUNA
Animals in oriental and Australis meets in Indonesia archipelago. Also flora mentioned by Webber. The border of those animal and flora species stated by both experts then created an imaginary line separating Asiatic flora and fauna, group of flora fauna on transition between Asiatic and Australis, and group of flora and fauna of Australis.

Therefore Indonesia archipelago consists of 3 flora and fauna groups according to its spread:
1. Asiatic/Oriental
Is located on the western part of Indonesia such as :Pulau Sumatra, Jawa, Bali, and Kalimantan, and other small islands in the vicinity.  Asiatic (western)  and Asia-Australis (middle) is separated by Wallace Line.
a) Mammals, consists of Indian elephant (Kalimantan and Sumatera), Tigers (Java, Bali, Sumatera), Rhino ( Sumatera and Kalimantan), Kancil (Java, Sumatera and Kalimantan), Honey bear (Sumatera and Kalimantan). The interesting is that there is no tigers in Kalimantan and in Sulawesi there are also Asiatic animals such as monkeys, musang, anoa, and rusa. Endemic of this region are one horn rhino in Ujung Kulon, Beo Nias in Nias, Bekantan and Orang Utan in Kalimantan.
b) Reptile: biawak, croc, turtle, lizard, snakes, cuckoos,  bunglon and trenggiling.
c) Aves:  elang bondol, jalak, merak, ayam hutan, burung hantu, kutilang, and other poultries
d) Fish: mujair, arwana, and pesut (mamalia air tawar) at Mahakam River.
e) Insects, : kumbang and butterflies and other endemics insects
Flora on Sunda shelf is also called as Asiatic flora and they have Asia typical plants. For example: rattan, and jackfruit. Tropical rain forest is located in the middle and west of Sumatera and mostly covering Kalimantan. Geologically Sunsa shelf was part of Asia continent. In Sunda self there are endemics plants: 59 species in Kalimantan and 10 in Java. Rafflesia Arnoldii can only be found in Bengkulu, Jambi, and South Sumatera. Tien Soeharto can only be found in North Tapanuli and North Sumatera.

Flora in Sumatra–Kalimantan
Most of Sumatera and Kalimantan area are rain forest climate or Af type according to Koppen Climate. This climate has high humidity and rainfall along the year.Therefore, vegetation type dominating here are tropical forest, which is lush and very heterogeneous. The trees are tall and close to each other, and under the trees grow shorter vegetation of bushes and grasses. Flora of Sumatera-Kalimantan are: (dipterocarpus), various epyphyt (orchid, moss, mushroom and ferns and Rafflesia arnoldii which grows along Bukit Barisan from Aceh to Lampung).

Flora in Jawa–Bali
Java island climate are various with humidity and precipitation is lesser eastward. West Java is dominated with tropical forest Climate (Af) and Tropical Season Climate (Am). Eastward, the climate shift to less precipitation climate. In Bali there is a Savanna Tropical Climate. This yield influence to vegetation pattern. Rainforest covers West Java such as Gede Pangrango, Cobodas, and Pananjung. While in Java, from northern part to Central Java to East Java are Tropical Season forest which leaves fall on dry season. Flora in this area is teak trees dominating East Java and Tropic Savanna dominating Bali. Mountain regions are overgrown by mountain vegetation.

2. Australis
Australis type of Indonesia fauna is also called as East Indonesia Fauna region orSahul Land, constitutes of papua, Aru Islands, and small islands in the vicinity. East Indonesia Fauna Region (Australis Type )  and Middle Indonesia Fauna (Asia-Australis Type)  is separated by Webber Line.

Fauna in this region are:.
1) Mammals:  kangaroo, walabi, bears, koala, nokdiak (landak Irian), oposum layang (pemanjat berkantung), kuskus, biawak, kanguru pohon, and bats
2) Reptiles: crocs, biawak, snakes, lizard and turtles.
3) Amphibia : tree frog, flying frog and water frog.
4) Aves :  akatua, beo, nuri, raja udang, cendrawasih, and kasuari.
5) Fish: arwana and other fresh water fishes with less amount in species than in western and middle part of Indonesia.

Flora in Sahul is called as Australis as the flora resembles as that of Australia’s. Sahul consists of Irian Jaya and small islands in the vicinity with typical of North Australia tropical forest which is very lush and evergreen.  Inside the forest there are thousands of big and high plants (up to 50 m), with lush leaves that sun could not shine to the earth surface and tendrils. There are many species of high quality and economic trees. On the coast there are mangrove forest and pandanus, while on swamp there are sago trees. On Mountains can be found Rhododendron, an endemic fauna.

3. Transition Zone
This zone is also called as Asia-Australis Type or Central Indonesia Fauna Zone or Wallacea Zone.
a) Mamalia :  anoa, babi rusa, tapir, ikan duyung, kuskus, black monkeys, bears, tarsius, monyet seba, horse, cows, and banteng.
b) Amphibia:  tree, flying and water frog
c) Reptile : snake, crocs, biawak and komodo
d) Aves : dewata, maleo, mandar, raja udang, bird eating bee, rangkong, kakatua, merpati, and swan.
This zone consists of : Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara Islands, Timor Island and Maluku Islands. They have dry climate and low humidity that other parts of Indonesia. These islands are called as transition zone as they have flora resembles to that of dry zone in Maluku, Nusa Tenggara , Java and The Phillipines. On mountain there are flora as on Kalimantan. While on coastal  and low land resembles to that of Irian Jaya. Vegetation on transition zone : Tropical Savanna vegetation on Nusa Tenggara, Mountain forest on Sulawesi and Mix Forest on Maluku. Mix forest on Maluku is the habitate of spices such as pala, cloves, and cinnamon, kenari, ebony, lontar.

The category is based on geological factor. Geologically, western of Indonesia archipelago was attached to Asia continent while on the eastern of Indonesia archipelago was attached to Australia continent. Therefore plants and animals from Asia continent has same typical as plants and animals on the western part of Indonesia. While plants and animals of the eastern part of Indonesia resembles to that of Australia.

Watu Godeg is located 55 KM from Lumajang and can be reach in 2 hours. There is no public transportation to access this site. Watu Godeg can be reach via Pronojiwo and pasirian, while from Malang via Tirtoyudo. It is recommended to have private ca to reach here.

Watu Gedeg beach has dark sand and has a cliff wall resembles to a bamboo wall (gedeg = Javanese). Not far from Watu Gedeg beach there is another beach, Watu Godeg. The beach is named so as there was rock there when it was hit by waves it will shake (godeg-godeg=Javanese)

Perhaps everyone knows that Semeru is beautiful and one of the most active volcano and highest volcano in Indonesia.But who knows that on slope of Semeru there is a bamboo forest located in Sumbermujur village, Candipuro, Lumajang?

The bamboo forest is just located 30 km from Lumajang and it takes only 1 hour drive southward via Tempeh district, and then Pasirian district. Bamboo forest is a supporting resources for water supply on  Semeru slope needed by locals. When the bamboo was logged by locals, water was scarcer.

Bamboo on slope of Semeru is distinct typical than other as the vegetation grow on the circle of water spring, and it covers 9 hectares. Various bamboo species’s grow here such as apus, jajang, petung, rampal, and ampel. Beside there are also old trees grow there.

In the morning visitors can enjoy the morning atmosphere, cold temperature and sun light shine through the bamboo trees. Currently the tourist facilities are still in early stage.

Every 1 Muharam, locals bring offering of tumpeng, crops, plantation crops and bull’s head and then paraded from village hall to spring in the bamboo forest. This ritual is called as Larung Pemdem Sesaji. . The purpose of this ritual is that the spring can flow overtime. And burying the bull’s head on spring is believed to be the source of locals life.

To reach the bamboo forest one can take bus to Malang via Dampit from Menak Kocar Bus Station Lumajang and get off at Candipuro market. Take motorbike taxi to the forest. The forest is the home of monkeys, bats, squirrel and tigers.

There are 10.500 bones found in Spialfields market, in area of Agustinian Monastry and St Mary Spital in London, England. This was found by Museum of London since 1991 to 2007 and one of the biggest archaeological discoveries.

Previously, the bones were the remains of people who were killed of the Darkness Death or the Great Hunger in 1315-1317. Some assume that the death is the punishment from God.

But nowadays, by radiocarbon calendar and geologic analysis, scientists were sure that the bones were links to a massive volcano explosion in the 13th century, one of the biggest explosions in the last 10.000 years.

Volcanolog Bill McGuire as quoted by The Guardian on Monday August 5 2012 said ‘ This eruption was the biggest in the history. And this caused temperature to decrease to 4 deg Celsius’. This decrease was caused by sulfur released to the atmosphere and volcanic ash gathered in the air, this decrease Sun light over the Earth. The decreasing temperature failed crops, plague and triggered death.  This death gave a massive impact to London which was inhabited by only 50.000 people. With the death of thousand of people, London loss one third of its population. Therefore, the death was not caused directly by the volcano explosion.

The actual location of the volcano has not yet to be determined though the likely suspects include places like Mexico, Ecuador and Indonesia. Volcanic ashes sediment to distance places, such as ash of Malawi Lake could reach Antartica, on its ice layers. The concentration of sulfur on the ice layers is 8 times higher than Krakatau eruption in Indonesia in 1883.

kompas.com

East Java has 23 diving spots , yet those potentials are not developed yet. The head of Culture and Tourism admitted that transportation has been the main handicap. Those spots are located in Situbondo and Sumenep.

Indonesia has 2000 diving spots, with 600 of them are in good condition. Most of them located in Eastern part of Indonesia.

Currently East Java has only 6 diving operators, while in Bali there are 60 diving operators and 40 diving operators in Bunaken, Manado.

PB Suryanaga is the biggest badminton association in Surabaya and even in East Java and one of branch of POR Suryanaga (Suryanaga Sport Accociation). POR Suryanaga was established in 1 January 1908, while PB Suryanaga was established in 1937.
In 1985, PB Suryanaga built rehearsal building consists of 5 badminton fields located in Jalan Dharmahusana Barat III/68 Blok A-212 East Surabaya. The tribune capacity is 1000 audiences.
For several years PB Suryanaga was led by Jacob Rusdianto, and dorm was built here for athletes from outside Surabaya, or East Java or outside Java.
Suyanaga has mah cooperation with parties concern about badminton in East Java, and it has few branches : PB Persada Surabaya, PB Tunas Harapan Surabaya, PB Putra Suryanaga Jember, PB Golden Horse Suryanaga Lumajang, PB Abadi Suryanaga Probolingggo, PB Speed Suryanaga Pandaan and PB Suryanaga Sidoarjo.
The training program in PB Suryanaga is based on sport knowledge for maximum advance of technical, physical and mental of players.
To train mental of athletes in national or international area, beside holding try-out session continuously, PB Suryanaga supports sending athletes for tournaments in Indonesia or abroad such as Piala Walikota, Piala Gubernur, Piala KONI, Indonesia Challenge, events in SIngapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, The Phillipines, and many more.
PB Suryanaga is supported by parties such as PT Gudang Garan Tbk, PT Indocock Surabaya, PT Reinforce Speed, PT Astindo Jaya Sport (ASTEC).
Athletes who had trained here are: Njoo Kimbie, Rudi Hartono, Sriwijanti, Maria Fransisca, Netty and Nelly Tanaya, Tri Kusharjanto, Alan Budi Kusuma, Alvent Yulianto, Sonny Dwi Kuncoro and many more. They won medals in national and international events such as All England, Thomas and Uber Cup, World Cup, SEA Games, Asian Games, and other tournaments such as Denmark Open, China Open, Korea Open, Japan Open, Malaysia Open, Indonesia Open and many more.
Achievements of POR Suryanaga :
-Awarded by MURI (Indonesia Record Museum) as sport association which could train athletes and yield achievements in 100 years.
-POR Suryanaga published book about achievements and history to commemorate 100 years anniversary.
-The director of Suryanaga was promoted as General Secretary of Indonesia Badminton Association (PBSI) in 2009-2013.

Achievements of PB Suryanaga athletes:
– Sony Dwi Kuncoro: Champion of Indonesia Super Series, japan Super Series and Tiongkok Super Series.
-Bambang Supriyanto: Champion of PON XVI in Samarinda
-Tri Kusharjanto and Lelyana Chandra : Champion of Sirnas Sumatera
-Tri Kusharjanto and Bambang S: Champion if Sirnas Sumatera, Sirnas SGS Elektrik, Jakarta Open, Sirnas Mutiara Tegal
-Seto Danu and Aurien : Champion of Sirnas Sumatera,
-Fauzi Adnan : Champion of Hanoi Badminton Championship, Runner-up of Sirnas Indonesia Timur, CHampion of Sirnas Banjarmasin.
-Rian Agung and Christoper Rusdianto : second runner up of Jakarta Open, Sirnas SGS Elektrik, Sinas Indonesia Timur.

PB Suryanaga has become fave place of foreign athletes to rehearse:
-Since 2008, Vietnam send 6 players to train for 30 days.
-Since 2006, Singapore send 5-10 young athletes to train for 10-14 days.
-Since 2006, France send 10-15 athletes to train for 14 days.
Since 2002, India send 5-10 athletes to train for 14-0 days.
-Since 2002, Australia has sent several times its athletes to train and sparing
-Holland send athletes to train and sparing.

Sobyok waterfall is located in Burno village, Senduro and this waterfall is very accessible.
The word Sobyok derives from Su means beautiful and Byok mean fall, so Sobyok means water which falls beautifully. There are two waterfalls, the big Sobyok and the small one. The small one is located 200 m from the big Sobyok. The small Sobyok flows slowly and only 20 meters high. While big Sobyok is the main waterfall. It is 15 meters high and there was cave-like ricks with water drops from plants roots. Very beautiful the drops are, like falling rain.

In the surrounding of the waterfalls there is a nice panorama of green cold hills. Coffee plantation makes the atmosphere more interesting and convenient.

To add to the complexity, and thus the fascination, of the Krakataus case study, in 1930 a second order event occured. In the center of the three-island archipelago, from the waters covering Krakatau,s submarine caldera, a fourth island, Anak Krakatau (Krakatau’s child), was born after a gestation period of almost 50 years. This emergent, virgin island, of which Surtsey is the cold temperature counterpart, has grown by periodic eruption and is now 2 km (1.25 miles) in diameter, and some 270 m (over 900 ft) high. In this turn, it has also received plant and animal colonists, largely from its older companion islands, and has developed its own embryonic biological community. The changes in this community as species are added year by year and as one temporary phase of the succession gives way to the next can be followed within an ecologist’s lifetime. Anak Krakatau’s emergence has provided a second opportunity for studying one of the central questions of ecology, the way comminities of living things are assembled. So Krakataus have given us not merely a single natural experiment, but a nested pair of them.

The early work by Dutch investigators has been augmented by succeeding generations of biologists and we now have data for a period of more than a century. Since the Krakatau biota, particularly that of Anak Krakatau, is a simplified one, many general ecological questions can be examined there more conveniently and profitably than in the more complex ecosystem of mainland areas. More importantly, perhaps, the Krakataus have become a classic case study of several aspects of ecological change. These include recovery of a tropical forest ecosystem from extreme disturbance, community assembly and succession in the humid tropics, and the colonization of islands.

AUGUST 1883
ADutch topographical engineer, Captain HJG Ferzenaar, was sent to reconnoiter the Krakatau group in the early August. Trees grew on the peak of Rakata but in devastated areas there were tree stumps, again without sign of branches or leaves. Volcanic effluvia prevented Ferzenaar from mapping the western, downwind half of the island, but his topographical map identifies three active craters, one on Perbuatan andnow two more on Danan, from which vapor columns rose, with many fumaroles (vents issuing gas and steam). The northernmost part of the main Danan crater appeared to have fragmented or collapsed recently. The eztent of volcanic activity convinced the wise captain that ‘Measuring s=there is still too dangerous, at least I would not like to accept the responsibility of sending surveyor…I consider a survey on the island itself inadvisable’ (Verbeek 1885). He was the last person set foot on the Island of Krakatau.

As the Dutch man-of-war Prins Hendrik passed close to Krakatau’s north coast on August 12, H McLeod (who was to be the first to set foot on the archipelago after the eruption) observed a 30-m-wide crater from which a column of ash and steam reached a height of 3400m (over 2 miles), as measured later from a suitable distance. Further ash eruptions were witnessed by ships during the next ten days. ON August 22 the Sunda, after passing the erupting volcano, sailed into a layer of pumice in Semangka Bay that was so thick that a bucket lowered overboard was filled with pumice rather than water. Activity was again intensifying. Explosions were heard in the afternoon of the twenty-fifth on the Prises Wilhelmina, near Jakarta, and in the evening ash was falling at Teluk Betung 80 km (50 miles) away in Sumatra and 300 km (190 miles ) away, south of Java’s First Point.